Basque Country and Asturias are both situated in North-western Spain, that is an extended and complex macro-region with a very articulated landscape. From a morphological and climatic point of view, several mountain ranges contribute to separating Atlantic coastal zones from southern Mediterranean zones. Consequently, landscape and vegetation present a high degree of diversification. Today, landscapes of the studied mountain areas are characterised by an extended presence of woodlands, consisting mainly of mixed deciduous forests with the dominance of oaks and, at higher altitudes, beech forests. In some cases, conifers reforestation covers specific areas, while several open pastures are steel visible or even used by local communities.

More specifically, from Basque Country, two macro-areas were selected: the north-est mountain ranges of the Llanada Alavesa, including Zalduondo y Alkoitza areas and Entzia mountain range. The management of these mountain spaces had great changes since the Middle Ages and each area shows its specific characteristics and history, in some cases, also depending on the altitude of sites or, more in general for a different interest in the agro-silvo-pastoral resources. However, in these areas, many traces of past transhumance activities and of multiple agro-silvo-pastoral practices, typical of the Old Regime, have been found.

AboutAsturias, El Palu area was selected. It is a mid-mountain area close to Allande village (Asturias, northern Spain) that presents remains of old pastoral and transhumance practices Those practices, until the 17th century, were carried out both by peoples of the valley and by transhumant communities (“vaqueiros”). This practice, still alive in some areas of Asturias, disappeared here in the 20th century. In addition, in the 17th and 18th centuries, blacksmithing and the extraction of wood for shipbuilding were promoted, leading to notable changes from an environmental point of view and in the rights of access to some resources.